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Product and process of planning, designing and constructing buildings and other structures

Compages (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton "architect", from ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "creator") is both the procedure and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures.^[iii] Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived every bit cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.^[iv]

The practice, which began in the prehistoric era, has been used as a way of expressing civilisation for civilizations on all seven continents.^[5] For this reason, architecture is considered to exist a form of art. Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times. The earliest surviving text on architectural theories is the 1st century AD treatise De architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius, according to whom a good building embodies firmitas, utilitas , and venustas (durability, utility, and dazzler). Centuries later, Leon Battista Alberti developed his ideas farther, seeing beauty as an objective quality of buildings to be found in their proportions. Giorgio Vasari wrote Lives of the Most Splendid Painters, Sculptors, and Architects and put forward the thought of style in the Western arts in the 16th century. In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that "form follows function". "Part" began to supplant the classical "utility" and was understood to include not only practical but likewise aesthetic, psychological and cultural dimensions. The idea of sustainable architecture was introduced in the late 20th century.

Compages began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that adult from trial and fault to successful replication. Ancient urban architecture was preoccupied with building religious structures and buildings symbolizing the political power of rulers until Greek and Roman architecture shifted focus to civic virtues. Indian and Chinese architecture influenced forms all over Asia and Buddhist architecture in detail took diverse local flavors. In fact, During the European Heart Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented by architects known past proper noun. Later, the roles of architects and engineers became separated. Mod architecture began subsequently World War I as an avant-garde movement that sought to develop a completely new style advisable for a new post-war social and economic order focused on coming together the needs of the middle and working classes. Accent was put on mod techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for loftier-rise superstructures. Many architects became disillusioned with modernism which they perceived equally ahistorical and anti-aesthetic, and postmodern and gimmicky architecture developed.

Over the years, the field of architectural structure has branched out to include everything from ship design to interior decorating.

Definitions

Architecture tin can hateful:

• A general term to depict buildings and other physical structures.^[6]
• The art and scientific discipline of designing buildings and (some) nonbuilding structures.^[vi]
• The way of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures.^[vi]
• A unifying or coherent form or structure.^[7]
• Cognition of art, science, technology, and humanity.^[vi]
• The design activity of the builder,^[6] from the macro-level (urban pattern, landscape architecture) to the micro-level (structure details and furniture). The practice of the architect, where architecture means offer or rendering professional services in connectedness with the blueprint and construction of buildings, or built environments.^[eight]

Theory of architecture

Program of the second floor (attic storey) of the Hôtel de Brionne in Paris – 1734.

The philosophy of compages is a branch of philosophy of fine art, dealing with aesthetic value of architecture, its semantics and in relation with development of civilisation. Many philosophers and theoreticians from Plato to Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze,^[ix] Robert Venturi and Ludwig Wittgenstein take concerned themselves with the nature of architecture and whether or not architecture is distinguished from building.

Historic treatises

The earliest surviving written piece of work on the discipline of architecture is De architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century AD.^[x] Co-ordinate to Vitruvius, a good edifice should satisfy the 3 principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas ,^{[eleven] [12]} commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity and delight. An equivalent in mod English would be:

• Durability – a building should stand up robustly and remain in proficient condition
• Utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used
• Beauty – information technology should exist aesthetically pleasing

Co-ordinate to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well equally possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De re aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament as well played a role. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the arcadian human figure, the Gilt mean. The most important attribute of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, and was based on universal, recognizable truths. The notion of manner in the arts was non developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Giorgio Vasari.^[13] By the 18th century, his Lives of the Most First-class Painters, Sculptors, and Architects had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish, and English.

In the 16th century, Italian Mannerist architect, painter and theorist Sebastiano Serlio wrote Tutte Fifty'Opere D'Architettura et Prospetiva (Consummate Works on Architecture and Perspective). This treatise exerted immense influence throughout Europe, being the first handbook that emphasized the practical rather than the theoretical aspects of architecture, and it was the first to catalog the 5 orders.^[14]

In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the title suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial earth, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the merely "true Christian form of compages."^[15] The 19th-century English fine art critic, John Ruskin, in his Vii Lamps of Architecture, published 1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Compages was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men … that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure".^[16] For Ruskin, the artful was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless information technology is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-synthetic, well-proportioned, functional edifice needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.^[sixteen]

On the difference between the ethics of compages and mere construction, the renowned 20th-century architect Le Corbusier wrote: "Yous employ rock, woods, and concrete, and with these materials y'all build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at piece of work. Just suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".^[17] Le Corbusier'due south contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said "Architecture starts when you carefully put ii bricks together. There it begins."^[eighteen]

Mod concepts

The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: "Form follows office". While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should exist entirely subject field to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, information technology had the outcome of introducing the concept of "function" in identify of Vitruvius' "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not merely applied but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural.

Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in mutual with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, information technology will promote social development.... To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not but reactionary; it can as well be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades grade into a mere instrumentality".^[19]

Amongst the philosophies that take influenced modernistic architects and their approach to building design are Rationalism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction and Phenomenology.

In the tardily 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and part, the consideration of sustainability, hence sustainable architecture. To satisfy the contemporary ethos a edifice should be synthetic in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and congenital environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste direction, and lighting.

History

Origins and vernacular compages

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  In Norway: wood and elevated-level

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Building start evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and ways (available building materials and bellboy skills). As man cultures developed and noesis began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a craft, and "architecture" is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and error, with progressively less trial and more than replication as the results of the procedure proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed colloquial architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the earth.

Prehistoric architecture

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  Göbekli Tepe from Turkey, founded in 10th millennium BC and abased in 8th millennium BC

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  Miniature of a regular Cucuteni-Trypillian house, total of ceramic vessels

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Early human settlements were mostly rural. Hence, Expending economies resulted in the creation of urban areas which in some cases grew and evolved very rapidly, such as that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley Civilization in modern-day Islamic republic of pakistan.

Neolithic settlements and "cities" include Göbekli Tepe and Çatalhöyük in Turkey, Jericho in the Levant, Mehrgarh in Islamic republic of pakistan, Knap of Howar and Skara Brae, Orkney Islands, Scotland, and the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine.

Ancient architecture

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In many ancient civilizations such every bit those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to symbolically represent the political power of the ruler or the land itself.

The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from borough ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. As the Architectural "style" developed in the form of the Classical orders. Roman architecture was influenced by Greek compages as they incorporated many Greek elements into their building practices.^[20]

Texts on architecture accept been written since ancient times. These texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman Architect Vitruvius. Some of the nigh of import early examples of canonic architecture are religious.

Asian architecture

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The architecture of different parts of Asia developed differently than Europe; and each of Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture had different characteristics. In fact, Dissimilar Indian and Chinese architecture which had great influence on the surrounding regions, Japanese architecture did not. Some Asian architecture showed great regional diversity such as Buddhist architecture, in particular. Moreover, other architectural achievements in Asia is the Hindu temple architecture, which developed from around the 5th century CE, is in theory governed past concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm.

In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to raise the natural landscape. As well, the grandest houses were relatively lightweight structures mainly using wood until recent times, and at that place are few survivals of dandy age. Buddhism was associated with a move to stone and brick religious structures, probably beginning every bit rock-cut architecture, which has oftentimes survived very well.

Early Asian writings on compages include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–fifth centuries BCE; the Shilpa Shastras of ancient India; Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka and Araniko of Nepal .

Islamic architecture

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Islamic compages began in the 7th century CE, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium, simply also developing features to adjust the religious and social needs of the club. Examples can be establish throughout the Centre East, Turkey, North Africa, the Indian Sub-continent and in parts of Europe, such equally Spain, Albania, and the Balkan States, as the issue of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. ^{[21] [22]}

Middle Ages

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In Europe during the Medieval flow, guilds were formed past craftsmen to organize their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The office of architect was usually i with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum equally they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.

The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From virtually 900 CE onward, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural cognition across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

Also, a pregnant part of the Middle Ages architectural heritage is numerous fortifications across the continent. From the Balkans to Spain, and from Malta to Estonia, these buildings stand for an of import part of European heritage.

Renaissance and the builder

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In Renaissance Europe, from nigh 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning accompanied past the evolution of Renaissance humanism, which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in order than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the private had begun. At that place was still no dividing line between artist, builder and engineer, or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference.

A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of scientific discipline and engineering, which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still possible for an creative person to blueprint a bridge every bit the level of structural calculations involved was inside the scope of the generalist.

Early mod and the industrial age

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With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rising of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, ofttimes at the expense of technical aspects of building blueprint. There was also the ascent of the "admirer builder" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived ordinarily from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of United kingdom that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish baronial styles. Formal architectural preparation in the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-Arts in French republic, gave much emphasis to the product of beautiful drawings and piffling to context and feasibility.

Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class every bit ornamented products, once inside the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper nether machine production.

Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. Housebuilders could use electric current architectural design in their work by combining features establish in pattern books and architectural journals.

Modernism

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Around the beginning of the 20th century, full general dissatisfaction with the accent on revivalist compages and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served equally precursors to Mod architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus schoolhouse, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior gear up throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis—the apex—of art, craft, and technology.

When mod compages was start practiced, information technology was an avant-garde motility with moral, philosophical, and artful underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new way appropriate for a new post-war social and economic guild, focused on coming together the needs of the heart and working classes. They rejected the architectural do of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the quickly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornamentation in favor of functional details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms. Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed organic architecture, in which the form was defined by its surroundings and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony betwixt man habitation and the natural globe with prime number examples being Robie House and Fallingwater.

Architects such every bit Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of edifice materials and modernistic construction techniques, trading traditional celebrated forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods fabricated possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave nascence to high-rise superstructures. Fazlur Rahman Khan's development of the tube structure was a technological break-through in building ever college. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the International Style, an artful epitomized in many means past the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center designed by Minoru Yamasaki.

Postmodernism

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Many architects resisted modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of historical styles. As the beginning generation of modernists began to dice afterwards World War II, the second generation of architects including Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, and Eero Saarinen tried to expand the aesthetics of modernism with Brutalism, buildings with expressive sculpture façades made of unfinished physical. But an even younger postwar generation critiqued modernism and Brutalism for being as well austere, standardized, monotone, and not taking into account the richness of man experience offered in historical buildings across time and in different places and cultures.

One such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and Brutalism is the school of metaphoric architecture, which includes such things equally bio morphism and zoomorphic compages, both using nature as the master source of inspiration and design. While information technology is considered past some to be merely an aspect of postmodernism, others consider information technology to be a school in its own right and a afterwards evolution of expressionist architecture.^[24]

Outset in the late 1950s and 1960s, architectural phenomenology emerged as an important movement in the early on reaction confronting modernism, with architects similar Charles Moore in the United states, Christian Norberg-Schulz in Kingdom of norway, and Ernesto Nathan Rogers and Vittorio Gregotti, Michele Valori, Bruno Zevi in Italia, who collectively popularized an interest in a new gimmicky architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings equally models and precedents.^[25] Postmodernism produced a mode that combined contemporary building engineering and cheap materials, with the aesthetics of older pre-modern and non-modern styles, from loftier classical architecture to popular or vernacular regional building styles. Robert Venturi famously defined postmodern architecture as a "decorated shed" (an ordinary edifice which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) and upheld it confronting modernist and brutalist "ducks" (buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms).^[26]

Architecture today

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Since the 1980s, as the complication of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. Moreover, in that location has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect ^{[Notes 1]} from the 'project' builder who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability.^{[Notes ii]} The preparatory processes for the pattern of any large building have get increasingly complicated, and crave preliminary studies of such matters equally durability, sustainability, quality, coin, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer exist the design of 1 person but must be the piece of work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism have been criticized by some members of the architectural profession who experience that successful compages is not a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider everyday needs of people and employ engineering science to create livable environments, with the design process existence informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.

Environmental sustainability has get a mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, take become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than solutions based primarily on firsthand cost. Major examples of this tin be found in passive solar building design, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and more than attention to a structure'south energy usage. This major shift in architecture has as well inverse architecture schools to focus more on the environment. In that location has been an acceleration in the number of buildings that seek to run into green edifice sustainable design principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable gimmicky techniques.^[27] The U.Due south. Greenish Edifice Council's LEED (Leadership in Free energy and Ecology Pattern) rating system has been instrumental in this.^{[28] [ quantify ]}

Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism, Metaphoric architecture, Complementary architecture and New Classical architecture promote a sustainable arroyo towards structure that appreciates and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical design.^{[29] [xxx]} This in contrast to modernist and globally uniform compages, as well every bit leaning against solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl.^[31] Glass pall walls, which were the hallmark of the ultra modern urban life in many countries surfaced even in developing countries like Nigeria where international styles had been represented since the mid 20th Century mostly considering of the leanings of foreign-trained architects.^[32]

Other types of architecture

Landscape architecture

Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor public areas, landmarks, and structures to reach environmental, social-behavioral, or aesthetic outcomes.^[33] It involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and soil conditions and processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcome. The scope of the profession includes landscape design; site planning; stormwater direction; ecology restoration; parks and recreation planning; visual resource management; greenish infrastructure planning and provision; and private estate and residence mural main planning and design; all at varying scales of design, planning and management. A practitioner in the profession of landscape architecture is chosen a landscape architect.

Interior architecture

Charles Rennie Mackintosh – Music Room 1901

Interior architecture is the pattern of a space which has been created by structural boundaries and the human interaction within these boundaries. Information technology can as well be the initial pattern and plan for use, and then later redesigned to conform a changed purpose, or a significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of the building shell.^[34] The latter is oftentimes part of sustainable architecture practices, conserving resources through "recycling" a structure past adaptive redesign. Mostly referred to as the spatial art of environmental design, form and practice, interior architecture is the process through which the interiors of buildings are designed, concerned with all aspects of the human uses of structural spaces. Put simply, interior architecture is the pattern of an interior in architectural terms.

Naval architecture

Body plan of a send showing the hull form

Naval compages, also known as naval engineering science, is an engineering subject field dealing with the engineering science design process, shipbuilding, maintenance, and operation of marine vessels and structures.^{[35] [36]} Naval architecture involves basic and practical enquiry, design, development, blueprint evaluation and calculations during all stages of the life of a marine vehicle. Preliminary blueprint of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the principal activities involved. Ship pattern calculations are also required for ships being modified (by ways of conversion, rebuilding, modernization, or repair). Naval architecture also involves the conception of safety regulations and damage control rules and the approving and certification of transport designs to meet statutory and non-statutory requirements.

Urban blueprint

Urban pattern is the process of designing and shaping the physical features of cities, towns, and villages. In contrast to architecture, which focuses on the design of private buildings, urban design deals with the larger calibration of groups of buildings, streets and public spaces, whole neighborhoods and districts, and entire cities, with the goal of making urban areas functional, attractive, and sustainable.^[37]

Urban design is an interdisciplinary field that utilizes elements of many built environment professions, including landscape architecture, urban planning, architecture, civil engineering and municipal engineering.^[38] It is common for professionals in all these disciplines to practice urban design. In more recent times dissimilar sub-subfields of urban design accept emerged such as strategic urban design, landscape urbanism, h2o-sensitive urban design, and sustainable urbanism.

Metaphorical "architectures"

"Architecture" is used as a metaphor for many modernistic techniques or fields for structuring abstractions. These include:

• Reckoner architecture, a set of rules and methods that draw the functionality, organization, and implementation of estimator systems, with software architecture, hardware architecture and network architecture covering more specific aspects.
• Business architecture, defined as "a blueprint of the enterprise that provides a mutual understanding of the organization and is used to align strategic objectives and tactical demands",^[39] Enterprise architecture is another term.
• Cognitive architecture theories about the structure of the human heed
• System architecture a conceptual model that defines the construction, behavior, and more views of whatever type of system.^[forty]

Seismic architecture

The term 'seismic architecture' or 'convulsion architecture' was get-go introduced in 1985 by Robert Reitherman.^[41] The phrase "earthquake compages" is used to draw a degree of architectural expression of earthquake resistance or implication of architectural configuration, form or style in earthquake resistance. It is too used to describe buildings in which seismic design considerations impacted its architecture. Information technology may exist considered a new artful approach in designing structures in seismic prone areas.^[42] The broad breadth of expressive possibilities ranges from metaphorical uses of seismic bug, to the more than straightforward exposure of seismic engineering. While outcomes of an earthquake compages tin exist very various in their concrete manifestations, architectural expression of seismic principles can likewise take many forms and levels of sophistication.^[43]

See as well

• Architectural engineering
• Architectural technology
• Index of architecture manufactures
• Outline of architecture
• Philosophy of compages
• Reverse architecture
• Timeline of architecture

Notes

1. ^ A design architect is one who is responsible for the design.
2. ^ A project architect is 1 who is responsible for ensuring the design is built correctly and who administers building contracts – in not-specialist architectural practices the project architect is also the design builder and the term refers to the differing roles the builder plays at differing stages of the process.

References

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2. ^ Giovanni Fanelli, Brunelleschi, Becocci, Florence (1980), Chapter: The Dome pp. 10–41.
3. ^ "compages". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 27 Oct 2017.
4. ^ Pace, Anthony (2004). "Tarxien". In Daniel Cilia (ed.). Malta before History – The World's Oldest Free Standing Stone Architecture. Miranda Publishers. ISBN978-9990985085.
5. ^ "7 Things I Learned About "Dwelling house" from Talking to Architects on Every Continent". Flat Therapy . Retrieved 5 Dec 2020.
6. ^ ^{a b c d e} Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (1993), Oxford, ISBN 0 19 860575 7
7. ^ Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, ISBN 0-87779-132-5 or ISBN 978-0-87779-132-four
8. ^ "Gov.ns.ca". Gov.ns.ca. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
9. ^ Deleuze, Gilles (1990). Pourparlers. Paris: Minuit. p. 219. Information technology is not the line that is betwixt two points, just the signal that is at the intersection of several lines.
10. ^ D. Rowland – T.North. Howe: Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture. Cambridge Academy Press, Cambridge 1999, ISBN 0-521-00292-iii
11. ^ "Vitruvius Ten Books on Architecture, with regard to mural and garden design". gardenvisit.com. Archived from the original on 12 Oct 2007. Retrieved xiv November 2005.
12. ^ "Vitruvius". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
13. ^ Françoise Choay, Alberti and Vitruvius, editor, Joseph Rykwert, Profile 21, Architectural Design, Vol. 49 No. five–vi
14. ^ Sebastiano Serlio -- On domestic architecture, Columbia University Libraries, accessed Feb 5, 2021
15. ^ D'Anjou, Philippe (2011). "An Ideals of Liberty for Architectural Design Practice". Journal of Architectural Education. 64 (ii): 141–147. doi:10.1111/j.1531-314X.2010.01137.x. JSTOR 41318789. S2CID 110313708.
16. ^ ^{a b} John Ruskin, The Vii Lamps of Architecture, 1000. Allen (1880), reprinted Dover, (1989) ISBN 0-486-26145-X
17. ^ Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, Dover Publications(1985). ISBN 0-486-25023-7
18. ^ "Architecture starts when y'all advisedly put two bricks together. There it begins. - Ludwig Mies van der Rohe at BrainyQuote". BrainyQuote.
19. ^ Rondanini, Nunzia Architecture and Social Change Heresies Ii, Vol. three, No. 3, New York, Neresies Collective Inc., 1981.
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21. ^ Marika Sardar (October 2004). "Essay: The Afterwards Ottomans and the Touch on of Europe". www.metmuseum.org. The Met. Retrieved 12 February 2019.
22. ^ Lory, Bernard (ane Jan 2015). "The Ottoman Legacy in the Balkans" (html / pdf). Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume Three. Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Book Iii. pp. 355–405. doi:x.1163/9789004290365_006. ISBN9789004290365 . Retrieved 12 February 2019.
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25. ^ Otero-Pailos, Jorge (2010). Architecture'due south Historical Turn: Phenomenology and the Rise of the Postmodern. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN9780816666041.
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28. ^ Other energy efficiency and green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS (Collaborative for High Operation Schools).
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34. ^ "Interior Compages". RISD Interior Architecture Graduate Department.
35. ^ RINA. "Careers in Naval Compages". www.rina.org.uk.
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37. ^ Boeing; et al. (2014). "LEED-ND and Livability Revisited". Berkeley Planning Periodical. 27: 31–55. doi:10.5070/BP327120808 . Retrieved 15 April 2015.
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39. ^ OMG Business Architecture Special Interest Group "What Is Business organization Architecture?" at bawg.omg.org, 2008 (archive.org). Accessed 04-03-2015; Cited in: William M. Ulrich, Philip Newcomb Information Systems Transformation: Architecture-Driven Modernization Case Studies. (2010), p. iv.
40. ^ Hannu Jaakkola and Bernhard Thalheim. (2011) "Architecture-driven modelling methodologies." In: Proceedings of the 2011 briefing on Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XXII. Anneli Heimbürger et al. (eds). IOS Press. p. 98
41. ^ Reitherman, Robert (1985). "Earthquake Engineering and Earthquake Architecture. Role of the AIA Workshop for Architects and Related Building Professionals on Designing for Earthquakes in the Western Mountain Statess".
42. ^ Llunji, Mentor (2016). Seismic Architecture - The architecture of earthquake resistant structures. Msproject. ISBN9789940979409.
43. ^ Charleson, Andrew (2000). "Towards An Earthquake Architecture. 12 WCEE-twelfth Earth Briefing on Convulsion Engineering".

External links

• World Architecture Community
• Architecture.com, published by Royal Institute of British Architects
• Architectural centers and museums in the world, list of links from the UIA
• American Institute of Architects
• Glossary of Architectural Terms Archived 28 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine
• Cities and Buildings Database – Collection of digitized images of buildings and cities drawn from across time and throughout the globe from the University of Washington Library
• "Architecture and Power", BBC Radio iv discussion with Adrian Tinniswood, Gillian Darley and Gavin Postage (In Our Time, Oct. 31, 2002)

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture

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